Josef Novotny
Looking for identity: mapping or imagination?
Introduction
In this paper I have briefly tried to discuss some theoretical aspects of mapping. In an abstract and schematic way I refer to the structure of mapping, which is in the paper understood in very general terms. The mapping is understood here as various processes that create an image of a selected place. The processes of imagination bear on the individual perception, as well as on the collective representation of the place. In this sense, the mapping could create someone’s identity as well. To the abstract schema I have tried to add several factors, which could play a role here. There are two items that seem to me absorbing in connection with the theme. First, in scale differentiation one can find a couple of “generalities/rules” if one tries to compare the organisation of scale-differentiated phenomena. My interest here is above all in geography. I think that for anyone who wants to get a comprehensive map of a selected place, it is suitable to see the place in a “hierarchically” structured environment. In a certain sense it seems to me accurate to deal with Taylor´s (1989) terms of global reality – national ideology – local experience. Second, I point out the relationship between “subjective” and “objective” aspects of mapping. In this sense, the question for never-ending discussion is: in which way and how much is our “reality” a matter of our (de)construction?
Mapping and geography
Mapping (as well as a map itself) might be defined in very general terms. Generally, it is a widely understandable image of reality, mostly an image in the geographic sense, which means the image of a selected place or region. Therefore, mapping seems to be a privileged field of geography. Despite that, geography only partially means mapping and vice-versa. Maps usually describe patterns or forms of spatial organisation of selected phenomena. However, geographers seek what is beyond these patterns, what is beyond the forms of spatial distribution. Additionally, social geography describes spatial aspects of interactions within the society. Therefore, and to certain extent in contrast with, thematisation and schematisation of maps, geographers should consider the organisation of the society in the environment (and also in the natural environment). They should see society as an interconnected system in space (one could say societal system) and, finally, as an interconnected societal system in the natural environment, the so-called environmental system.[1] Generally, it is an active, complexly conditioned and hierarchically organized system.[2] Although geography studies above all “external” expressions and aspects of the organisation, naturally some knowledge about “internal” social structures is also necessary.
In other words it seems that geography is (or has had ambitions to be) not “only” a descriptive science; geographers should look for general rules, which could describe organisation in space as well. In this sense, there has been an “everlasting” debate about the nature of geography: above all, discussion between idiographic and nomothetic approaches, as well as discussion about repetitiveness on the one hand, and uniqueness of geographical phenomena on the other hand in the history of geographic thought.[3] I know and anticipate that some generalisations have been made in research on rank/scale differentiation in geography. As a zoom is characteristic for maps, the rank/scale-differentiated view is inseparable from mapping. That is why I stress this view in the essay.
First, one can speak about a horizontal/geographical dimension of scale differentiation, in terms of hierarchy: micro (local), middle (regional) and macro (global) level. Nevertheless, one could find also a “deeper,” let’s say vertical, differentiation within the society: the experience of individuals, collective ideology and total reality. From this viewpoint mapping means imagination, and all three levels might play an important role here. Generally speaking, the former — horizontal/geographic rank/scale differentiation — is in accordance with the latter — vertical differentiation — and both should be considered important for mapping the regions. I use this twofold differentiation as the first dimension in the model of processes of mapping.
Mapping my worlds
I think that in order to map someplace I must first recognise the character of the place and also its position in the “real” world, as well as in my world. So, let me first imagine my world; indeed, probably I had better speak not about the world in singular, but about various worlds in plural. Naturally, not all of my worlds are your worlds and the other way around. I am not sure, but it is quite probable that some of the worlds I have been thinking about we are sharing. At least, it is the same earth we are all living on. From this viewpoint, it is our world in singular. However, I think that there are many different identities as well as different worlds — in plural. These are more or less different personal, as well as collective, images and therefore, also more or less different maps. It seems to me accurate to use an abstract and little bit complicated schema here, perhaps because of the fact that I have got the impression that our reality is really complicated.
One can see our world (world in singular) as a system. I do not exactly know how much it is true, but for example in an economic[4] or also ecological/environmental[5] sense, terms like “world economy” or “world environmental systems” do matter. However, because of its complexity, we meet problems when we attempt to describe the system. Therefore, we need some thematic as well as methodological reductions. The number of factors, which could in various ways influence phenomena we are studying, is very often unacceptable; thus, there are objective reasons why the complexity must be reduced. In order to describe relevant problems we usually use some models, schemas as well as maps.
You may have gotten the impression that the above-mentioned splitting of human existence into many different worlds (and many identities) is very abstract and a little chaotic, but I suppose that this reduction is necessary for mapping. Therefore, I would like to draw my model. From the realistic point of view[6] we can reduce the plurality of worlds we are living in into three kinds or general types. In other words, I am not speaking below about one reality but about the “real” existence of the three interconnected realities — three general types of my worlds.
(i) First, there is a “central” world of objective existence. I presume the objective existence of objects (above all material objects) and their structures. Organisation of the world in this sense is the subject of study of sciences (and above all of natural sciences). The basic premise included in scientific knowledge is that reality has a structure that is sometimes very deep and invisible. The structure determines the behaviour of phenomena and the effective functioning of forces. We should not forget the fact that we need some amount of “positive” and thus empirically evident knowledge (as especially the “postmodern” social sciences sometimes do). Speculation may be interesting and sometimes also exciting but usually nothing more. Knowledge of basic laws and rules, which describe ways in which natural and also social phenomena work, is even important for contemporary society. If we cannot find any rules/laws (especially in cases of more complex systems) we should, at least, try to investigate some repetitiveness in organisation that enables some future predictions. As mentioned above, there are two other worlds besides this “central” one. Nevertheless from the point of view of “positive“ science these are only distortions of the “hard” reality. In spite of this claim, it does not deny their doubtless existence, which is in a certain sense real as well.
(ii) Second, there is a “virtual” world(s) of collective representations. That is the first distortion of the real (above all material) world. It may be the result of distorted interpretations in news, books, movies, etc., and also in science, etc. Thus, these interpretations may very often be conditioned by ideology resulting from a variety of causes. Economic or political interests are often crucial factors here. In this sense one can speak about construction and deconstruction of reality. Very important and sometimes dangerous is the fact that such collective ideas may be comfortably used as an effective lever. Therefore, processes of so-called modernisation and also globalisation with its increasing possibilities of communication could also play an important role here. For example, effective political mobilisation connected with nationalism[7] or various ideologies could be provoked. Moreover, nationalism in Anderson (1983) as well as Hobsbawm (1992) could be considered as a typical feature of the second type of the world(s).[8]
(iii) Third, we cannot forget that individuals do matter. Each of us has our own different representations and interpretations of our existence. Each of us can perceive the world around us differently. Differences in perception thus mean different images and different maps, as well. I find it acceptable to speak here about the second distortion of the reality, about the third type of the world(s). It is/they are individually different, subjective world(s). On the one hand, we speak not about one but about an infinite number of individual worlds; on the other hand, we can see social reality as a puzzle consisting of a large number of these individually different interpretations and representations.
In spite of possible similar geographic location, everyone can see the same place differently. However, everyone must respect some basic (“positive”) facts of reality and probably everyone is influenced by various collective representations/ideologies. (And everyone can be the subject as well as the object of various representations.) I argue that in geography in general as well as in mapping as a sub-discipline of geography, attention should be given to each type of world(s) that have been described. If I want to map a region in order to get a general picture of this place, I need to know some “hard” facts about the region (mapping the world I.), which help me to draw a “skeleton” of the map, but I also should know some “soft” facts (mapping the world(s) II. and III.), which help me to recognize the truthful character of the place. Alongside the above-mentioned twofold rank/scale differentiation is for me this “object”/”subject” orientation (both in ontological and epistemological terms) — the second dimension of the mapping.
Mapping means creating models — maps should help us to orientate. My model, which is described in figure 1, should help me orientate, as well. The schema is supposed to be the “map” of my world(s). Nevertheless, the model described above in the text and below in the picture is only my speculation. One can say that “total“ reality is only one, and its differentiation, which I have pleaded for, is only a construction that has originated in my mind. In this sense, it is only my representation that takes part in the third world of my model. In addition to this bare fact, the different worlds in my model (such as any part in any other schema) are ideal types. There are no such ideal types in reality. It is almost always continuum, and its interconnected parts, if any could be recognised, variously influence each other. In conclusion, every map means reduction.
Figure 1 – Mapping my worlds – the logic of mapping
Conclusion — looking for identity
One can find a couple of factors that have been defining our identity in our (modern) world —above all, the fact that our world is structured in many ways. Identity could depend on someone’s gender, race, ethnicity, or religion, as well as one’s position in the social strata or economic wealth and so on. However, every one of us is living in space and, in spite of the current intensive processes of globalisation, increasing communication, computerisation, etc., we are still living much more in a physical space than in a cyberspace. Therefore, the physical distances and location factors, as well as broadly defined geographical structures, play an important role in the processes of creating someone’s identity. Besides, the place where you were born or you are living has very often conditioned the above-mentioned factors (such as ethnicity, religion, language and your socio-economic position, as well).
However, the location of your/my birthplace or the place where we are living may be in accordance with the above-mentioned schema specified by a number of definitions. First, from the macro-view I feel that I belong to the European community. It is probably a matter of luck that I was born in Europe and therefore I belong to the wealthier and more developed part of the world. Nevertheless, I have more friends in Australia than in Spain, and I guess that more of my clothes were originally made in China than in England. Moreover, despite the fact that I like trekking in the Alps and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea, the Asian mountains are bigger, and I enjoyed diving in Egypt’s Red Sea more. In addition to these somewhat superficial claims, the political idea of European citizenship seems remote to me. If I compare it with my national identity, there are no such ideological relations to Europe. However, geographical proximity and shared civilisation history are the main factors that influence my European identity. But as I reckon, that could be the topic for another discussion.
Second, there is a “middle” scale. It means for me above all national identity. From the viewpoint of political geography the main actors on the world political scene are still national states. However, there seems to be nearly nothing natural in the character of a political state. Even ethnicity, culture and history might be interpreted in order to create the state as a political unit. Effective interpretation is sometimes a very strong lever, which might kindle social mobilisation or the political aspirations of groups who can be variously defined. In this sense, the political and also the national state seem to be ideological, artificial constructs rather than natural geographical units. In spite of this fact or maybe because of it, our collective identification with the nation and national state is quite often very strong. In accordance with the above-mentioned arguments, I argue that most Czechs feel more Czech than European, just as most Japanese feel more Japanese than Asian.[9]
Finally, let me leave the level of “ideology” and move to a micro-view, to the locality, to the world of everyday experience. That is the part of our identity that results from the concrete character of the place where we were born and where we work, as well as from our lifestyle, hobbies, etc., rather than from our feelings of belonging to a nation, civilisation or any other “broad” community. Naturally, one could find various differences and disparities even in relatively homogenous countries or within relatively homogenous societies. If anyone wants to complete a general map of a selected region he or she should give attention to the micro-scale as well.
References
ANDERSON, B. (1983): Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism. London, Verso.
CLOKE, P., PHILO, Ch., SADLER, D. (1991): Approaching Human Geography: An Introduction to Contemporary Theoretical Debates. London, Paul Chapman.
GELLNER, E. (1983): Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
HAMPL, M. (1997): Geographical Unevenness in Nature and Society: Law or “Removable” Randomness? Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Geographica, vol. 32, p. 11-26, Prague.
HAMPL, M. (2000): Reality, Society and Geographical/Environmental Organization: Searching for an Integrated Order. Prague, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development, Charles University, published by DemoArt.
HOBSBAWM, E. (1992): Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality. 2nd edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
JOHNSTON, R.J., GREGORY, D., PRATT, G., WATTS, M. (2000): The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th edition, Oxford, Blackwell.
KORČÁK, J. (1941): Přírodní dualita statistického rozložení. [Natural Duality of Statistical Distribution]. Statistický obzor, Vol.22, pp. 171-222
LOVELOCK, J. (1987): A New Look at Life on Earth. Oxford University Press, second edition.
TAYLOR, P. (1989): Political Geography. Harlow, Longman Scientific and Technical, 2nd edition.
WALLERSTEIN, I. (1979): The Capitalist World-Economy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
[2] At least from the statistical viewpoint, environmental (complex) systems are organized hierarchically in a way of “many minimums – few maximums” (for example a set of countries according to their area as well as economic wealth, or a set of towns or villages according to their population, etc.). That is why geographical organization is of an asymmetric (hierarchical) nature. It is somewhat contrary to the relative homogeneity of type sets of elements (for example, the general validity of “normal” statistical distribution of biological phenomena, e.g., a set of people according to their weight, etc.). For further details see Korčák (1941) or Hampl (2000).
[3] For further details see for example Johnston, Gregory, Pratt and Watts (2000) or Hampl (1997).
[4] See for example Wallerstein (1979) or many others.
[5] For example, Lovelock’s (1987) concept of Gaia.
[6] I think that the following ideas are generally connected with the never-ending debate about the “agency-structure“ problem in the evolution of the thought/theories of social science. Looking for an “infra-structure,“ which is interconnecting the roles of individual agents (which stress, for example, behaviorism) and the role of structures (which stress, for example, Marxism), is the common project of Gidden’s structuration theory and theory of (critical) realism. See for example and for the relation to geography, Cloke, Philo and Saddler (1991).
[7] That is why it is possible to be in agreement with Gellner (1983), who claimed that nationalism is a product of modern society.
[8] See Anderson (1983) who pointed out that nations constitute only “imagined communities.” From his viewpoint they exist more as mental images than as genuine communities established by face-to-face contacts. Similarly Hobsbawm (for example, 1992) stressed the degree to which nations are “invented traditions” rather than long-established ethnic communities.
[9] However, it is questionable if most of Egyptians (as well as inhabitants of other Islamic countries) feel more Egyptian than Muslim because of effective interpretation (even political interpretation) of Islam and because of their strong identification with Islam.